jueves, 26 de octubre de 2023

Nueve herejías libertarias que tientan a los católicos neoconservadores a desviarse del pensamiento social católico (traducido)

Por Daniel K. Finn

Traducción. Texto original tomado de: https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=googlescholar&id=GALE|A282824647&v=2.1&it=r&sid=AONE&asid=d27c61d4


Durante las últimas cuatro décadas, varios eruditos cristianos "neoconservadores" han trabajado con gran beneficio en la articulación de los fundamentos morales del capitalismo y sus efectos morales positivos en la socialización de los participantes del mercado. Este ha sido un trabajo muy necesario, ya que las iglesias cristianas todavía no han abordado adecuadamente la defensa moral sistemática del interés propio en las relaciones de mercado que se ha empleado en el pensamiento secular durante trescientos años. (1) Al mismo tiempo, sin embargo, muchos involucrados en esta afirmación del capitalismo han encontrado con demasiada facilidad una causa común con otros de la derecha política, en particular los libertarios, cuya visión fundamental de la persona humana y la moralidad está en desacuerdo con una visión cristiana y , en particular, una visión católica de la vida.


No hay duda de que necesitamos mercados y libertad económica, propiedad individual de la propiedad (incluidas las empresas), iniciativa económica personal, creatividad individual y una serie de otras cosas defendidas por las personas a las que criticaré en este ensayo. La cuestión es que no podemos resolver adecuadamente los problemas que enfrentamos como personas de fe a menos que tengamos una comprensión cuidadosa y autocrítica del pensamiento social religioso, algo que los católicos neoconservadores con demasiada frecuencia no exhiben. Para muchos, la tendencia es cultivar un sentido de fidelidad a la tradición católica empleando las partes que les gustan e ignorando las que no les gustan. Tras la publicación del Centesimus Annus del Papa Juan Pablo II, Michael Novak afirmó que el Papa era un capitalista (2) a pesar de que el Papa dijo en esa encíclica que después de la caída de la Unión Soviética era un error afirmar que el capitalismo era "el único modelo". de organización económica." (3)


Sin embargo, el foco de este ensayo no es simplemente la selectividad de los neoconservadores sino cómo las presunciones libertarias no reconocidas en su trabajo distorsionan el pensamiento católico. Es por la necesidad de una afirmación equilibrada de los mercados que critico a quienes los defienden con más energía.


Agregaría una aclaración sobre mi uso de la palabra herejía en este ensayo. Por un lado, uso esa palabra de manera informal, sin pretender que se refiera sólo a errores formalmente condenados por las autoridades eclesiásticas. Por herejía me refiero a una convicción sobre la humanidad o la moralidad que entra en conflicto con los supuestos católicos estándar, particularmente los articulados en la enseñanza papal oficial. Por otro lado, no afirmo que todos los libertarios sostengan todas las herejías identificadas aquí ni que todos los libertarios que sostengan cualquiera de estas herejías empleen el mismo razonamiento para ello. Tampoco pretendo que ningún erudito católico neoconservador en particular se sienta tentado por todas estas herejías o sostenga alguna de ellas en su forma puramente libertaria. Las herejías operan más como señuelos que alejan a estos eruditos de sus raíces católicas. Además, no pretendo que todos los eruditos católicos neoconservadores sean igualmente susceptibles de extraviarse de esta manera. Es muy difícil ofrecer una crítica general precisa de un grupo cuando comprende una diversidad considerable, como es el caso de los católicos neoconservadores. El argumento aquí, sin embargo, es que se ha desarrollado una relación intelectual demasiado estrecha entre varios eruditos católicos y el libertarismo. Gran parte de lo que está mal en el libertarismo desde la perspectiva católica se ha integrado en una reflexión ética supuestamente católica sobre la economía.


Nueve herejías 


Libertad

Herejía #1: Los gobiernos violan la libertad de las personas cuando las obligan a actuar de determinadas maneras (más allá de prohibir el robo, la fuerza y el fraude). Para los libertarios, cualquier prohibición gubernamental más allá de prevenir el robo, la fuerza y el fraude viola la libertad de los ciudadanos. La noción libertaria de libertad es que actúo libremente si soy la fuente de la decisión de actuar. Es por esta razón que algunos libertarios como Robert Nozick incluso han argumentado que la esclavitud voluntaria (es decir, la elección de celebrar un contrato para ser esclavo) debería legalizarse. (4)


La visión católica de la libertad no es este tipo de "autoiniciación" sino más bien la elección de la realización personal. Para decirlo simplemente desde el punto de vista católico, uno no puede elegir libremente ser drogadicto o esclavo. El hecho de que terminemos marchitos, insatisfechos y esclavizados significa que la elección no fue libre.


Los católicos neoconservadores no respaldan todas las dimensiones de la libertad que respaldan los libertarios. Sin embargo, se encuentran ecos de la visión libertaria de la libertad en su defensa de las políticas económicas de derecha. Uno de los argumentos clave de los académicos de la derecha política ha sido contra el uso del gobierno para legislar ciertos tipos de moralidad o aumentar los impuestos para financiar la asistencia a otros. Por ejemplo, en su libro Catholic Social Teaching and the Market Economy, Philip Booth ha argumentado que "el Estado no debe intentar proteger o alterar la ecología moral de una sociedad de manera que busque obligar a las personas a adquirir disposiciones virtuosas". (5) Por supuesto, demasiadas modificaciones son ineficientes e inmorales, y ninguna ley puede forzar un cambio en la disposición. Sin embargo, la ley puede alentarlo y apoyar los cambios culturales que ya están en marcha debido a otras causas. La declaración de Booth parecería indicar que las leyes contra la esclavitud, los golpes a las esposas y la discriminación racial en los bares (por nombrar sólo tres leyes que han contribuido a una ecología moral alterada en los Estados Unidos) violarían de alguna manera el papel apropiado del gobierno.


A diferencia de Booth, el Papa Juan Pablo II se ha referido al ejercicio de la "verdadera libertad", limitada por la verdad en parte a través de un "marco jurídico" para el mercado. (6) Como argumentó Tomás de Aquino, algunas personas "deben ser restringidas del mal por la fuerza y el miedo" y "al habituarse de esta manera, podrían ser inducidas a hacer voluntariamente lo que hasta ahora hacían por miedo y así volverse virtuosas". (7)


Los neoconservadores suelen adoptar un enfoque diferente. El padre Robert Sirico degrada el significado moral del pago de impuestos:


    Si estamos obligados a hacer algo por ley y, por lo tanto, obligados por

    autoridad pública para emprender alguna acción, cumplimos porque

    debe. Que estemos de acuerdo con la demanda no es un gran crédito para nuestra

    sentido de humanitarismo o caridad. El impulso aquí es

    esencialmente uno de miedo: sabemos que si no damos, lo haremos

    Nos encontramos en el lado equivocado del Estado. (8)

Tal posición implicaría que el gerente que virtuosamente evita acosar sexualmente a sus trabajadoras ya no puede hacerlo por virtud el día después de que el gobierno estatal ilegalice el acoso sexual, seguramente un malentendido de la vida moral.


Una afirmación neoconservadora típica es que "si la solidaridad es una virtud, no puede ser coaccionada", por lo que la solidaridad forzada es "moralmente vacía". (9) Es cierto que alguien que evita el mal sólo porque es ilegal no es virtuoso, pero la presencia de una ley no destruye por sí sola la moralidad de la acción.


El carácter de la justicia, parte 1

Herejía #2: La justicia es justicia conmutativa. Para los libertarios, la justicia no es más que justicia conmutativa, ese estándar de justicia que debería prevalecer en las transacciones voluntarias uno a uno. Para los libertarios, la justicia distributiva es desacertada e inmoral. Que el gobierno aumente los impuestos para pagar bienes o servicios proporcionados a los necesitados viola los derechos de propiedad de los contribuyentes. Muchos libertarios ven los impuestos como un robo.


Desde el punto de vista católico, la justicia tiene tres dimensiones. La justicia conmutativa requiere un trato justo en las relaciones uno a uno. La justicia distributiva requiere que las acciones e instituciones relacionadas con la propiedad y el uso de los bienes de la tierra garanticen que se satisfagan las necesidades de todos. La justicia general (a veces llamada justicia legal o incluso social) se refiere a la obligación que toda persona tiene de contribuir a la sociedad y a la obligación que tienen las sociedades de permitir que todas las personas contribuyan de esa manera. (10)


Como parte de la justicia distributiva, el pensamiento social católico defiende la noción de derechos económicos. Sin embargo, estos nunca han sido entendidos simplemente como reclamos sobre el público que los individuos pueden ejercer sin hacer un esfuerzo por mantenerse a sí mismos porque la justicia general exige tanto el esfuerzo como la contribución a la sociedad. Sin embargo, la enseñanza papal ha insistido durante mucho tiempo en que quienes no pueden valerse por sí mismos tienen derecho a las necesidades básicas. (11) El Papa Benedicto XVI explica la importancia de "la acción política, concebida como un medio para perseguir la justicia a través de la distribución". (12)


Michael Novak ha criticado durante mucho tiempo la noción católica de tales derechos "económicos", (13) pero quizás un punto más instructivo donde algunos católicos neoconservadores han adoptado puntos de vista libertarios de la vida económica tiene que ver con la justicia de los precios y salarios (el precio del trabajo ). Los libertarios creen que el carácter voluntario del intercambio genera justicia porque asegura que ambas partes de un acuerdo mejorarán su situación, de lo contrario una u otra se habría negado a participar.


Sin embargo, como ha argumentado Albino Barrera, OP, en algunas circunstancias los mercados generan "compulsión económica". (14) En Rerum Novarum, el Papa León XIII enseñó que


    Hay un dictado de la naturaleza más imperioso y más antiguo que cualquier otro.

    negociar entre hombre y hombre, que la remuneración debe ser suficiente para

    apoyar al asalariado con una comodidad razonable y frugal. si a través

    necesidad o miedo de un mal peor, el trabajador acepta con mayor dureza

    condiciones porque un empleador o contratista no le dará nada mejor,

    es víctima de la fuerza y la injusticia. (15)

Desde el punto de vista católico, ni el consentimiento mutuo ni la ganancia mutua son suficientes para garantizar la justicia conmutativa.


En contraste, muchos católicos neoconservadores rechazan la idea del salario injusto y rechazan las leyes de salario mínimo diseñadas para prevenir tal "fuerza e injusticia". Sirico objeta basándose en que las leyes de salario mínimo "requieren la mano coercitiva del gobierno para interrumpir las acciones voluntarias de las personas que actúan en el libre mercado", diciéndole a una persona sin trabajo "que él o ella no puede negociar voluntariamente un sueldo o salario con quien él o ella quiera." (16) Sirico no hace referencia a los argumentos del Papa León y en cambio suena cercano a los de Robert Nozick, cuyas opiniones han sido descritas como elevando "el ejercicio sin obstáculos de la voluntad al principio supremo de la moralidad". (17) El economista neoconservador católico Antony Davies se resiste a tales argumentos y, en cambio, afirma que los mercados efectivamente pagan salarios justos. (18)


Con mayor frecuencia, los neoconservadores simplemente ignoran o marginan las preocupaciones por la justicia. En El espíritu del capitalismo democrático, Michael Novak cita seis temas teológicos importantes para una evaluación moral de la economía: incongruentemente, la justicia no figura en la lista, pero sí la competencia. (19) Rodger Charles, SJ, en su obra de dos volúmenes Christian Social Witness in Teaching, (20) pretende abordar la perspectiva de Tomás de Aquino sobre el precio justo, pero inexplicablemente no informa sobre sus afirmaciones centrales. Para Tomás de Aquino, era legítimo que un vendedor cobrara un precio superior al normal si tenía una necesidad inusual del objeto en el momento de la venta, pero era inmoral que el vendedor aumentara el precio simplemente porque un comprador estaba dispuesto a pagar. más. (21)


Varios neoconservadores han argumentado que la enseñanza premoderna sobre el precio justo en realidad respaldaba el precio de mercado como el precio justo. Sin embargo, si los eruditos medievales pensaran que el precio de mercado en todas las circunstancias era justo, no habrían necesitado incluir una sección especial sobre el precio justo en tantos tratados teológicos. Cómo aplicar la doctrina del precio justo en los mercados es quizás el mayor desafío intelectual que enfrenta hoy la ética económica católica. Sin embargo, para responder adecuadamente debemos afrontar el desafío directamente.



Individualismo metodológico

Herejía #3: No existe la sociedad. Friedrich Hayek argumentó que no existen la guerra o la sociedad porque son simplemente formas abreviadas de referirse a las interacciones de los individuos en grandes grupos. (22) Bajo el individualismo metodológico, se suponía que los científicos sociales explicaban un evento rastreándolo hasta los pensamientos y motivaciones de los individuos involucrados en la situación, nunca hasta ninguna realidad social porque éstas no pueden tener ningún efecto causal independiente de los individuos activos en el momento. el tiempo.


La insuficiencia de esta interpretación individualista del mundo queda ampliamente demostrada por el análisis que hace el sociólogo de la interacción entre la acción individual y la estructura social. Margaret Archer describe útilmente esta interacción al identificar la influencia causal mutua y la relativa autonomía de estas dos dimensiones de la vida social. (23) Archer se resiste a los extremos del individualismo, como el de Hayek, que niega el efecto causal a las estructuras, y del colectivismo que visualiza a los individuos como peones simplemente empujados por el sistema social.


Desde el punto de vista de Archer, los individuos son de hecho los agentes, pero su agencia está restringida y facilitada por estructuras preexistentes. Las habilitaciones facilitan que algunas personas hagan las cosas; las restricciones lo hacen más difícil. Así, yo, que nací en los Estados Unidos, me beneficio enormemente del hecho social preexistente de que un gran número de académicos en todo el mundo pueden leer inglés, mientras que otros académicos que crecieron en Italia, Brasil o Sri Lanka tienen una mayor audiencia potencial más pequeña o deben pagar un precio adicional (tener que escribir en un segundo idioma).


Tales restricciones y habilitaciones son "propiedades emergentes" que surgen de la interacción a largo plazo de los seres humanos. Son creados (a menudo sin intención) por humanos y, una vez existentes, proporcionan el marco estructural que aumenta o reduce el precio de ciertas acciones para los actores, generalmente de diferentes maneras dependiendo de la ubicación social del actor, donde los pobres enfrentan más restricciones. y menos habilitaciones. Esto no significa que el individuo esté decidido a hacer esto o aquello, pero de hecho hay un tipo de causalidad estructurada, una fuerza causal entre otras que inciden sobre el individuo, que ocurre independientemente del individuo.


La enseñanza católica oficial refleja este análisis dual de estructura y agencia. Varios papas han hablado de la influencia de las estructuras sociales en la vida de los individuos, particularmente los pobres. El Papa Juan Pablo II identificó lo que llamó "la subjetividad" de la sociedad en reconocimiento del hecho de que, más allá de las ideas y acciones de los individuos, las estructuras surgen de las acciones de las personas en el pasado y posteriormente tienen una influencia independiente. (24)


Los católicos neoconservadores rara vez adoptan la versión extrema del individualismo metodológico, pero muchos, no obstante, se aliaron con algunos de los pensadores más inclinados al individualismo en el ámbito de la economía, particularmente la escuela austriaca de economía. En Más allá del interés propio: un enfoque personalista de la acción humana, Gregory R. Beabout et al. Respaldamos el método individualista de Ludwig von Mises de que "comprender un grupo es sólo comprender el significado que los miembros individuales atribuyen a sus actividades". (25)


Nadie quiere ser conocido como extremista, y al defender el uso de una antropología individualista en The Free Person and the Free Economy, Anthony Santelli y sus coautores argumentan que su posición (en gran medida compartida con von Mises) no es extremista porque no lo son ". individualistas atomistas": entienden la acción humana como algo integrado en la vida social. (26) Los verdaderos extremistas, argumentan, respaldan el "individualismo moral" en el que los individuos "tienden a evitar el matrimonio y la vida familiar, así como diversas formas de intimidad". (27) En La naturaleza humana y la disciplina de la economía, Patricia Donahue-White et al. describen el individualismo moral como que implica "vivir la vida completamente por uno mismo, ciego a las necesidades de los demás y sin poder mantener relaciones sociales duraderas". (28)


Esta autopercepción de evitar posiciones de derecha se queda corta. No parece haber nadie, ni siquiera Ayn Rand, el más extremo de los individualistas, que sostenga un individualismo moral tan extremo. En realidad, no existe ninguna escuela de economía a la derecha de los austriacos. Los neoconservadores que adoptan la visión austriaca se encuentran en la extrema derecha de la antropología social, lejos de la visión más centrista de la persona humana en el pensamiento social católico.


El carácter de la justicia, parte 2

 Herejía #4: La justicia es una virtud de los individuos, nunca un carácter de los sistemas. Friedrich Hayek afirmó que no existe la justicia social. (29) Como él dice, "el concepto de 'justicia social' es necesariamente vacío y sin sentido... porque la voluntad de nadie puede determinar los ingresos relativos de las diferentes personas". (30) La visión de la justicia que tiene Hayek aquí depende claramente de su individualismo metodológico anterior. Debido a que toda causalidad debe atribuirse a decisiones individuales, no existe una causalidad sistémica y, por lo tanto, no hay manera de juzgar dicha causalidad como justa o injusta en su trato a las personas.


Sin embargo, en el pensamiento social católico existe efectivamente una causalidad social según las líneas sociológicas descritas anteriormente y, por tanto, hay justicia social. El término justicia social fue empleado por primera vez en la enseñanza papal por el Papa Pío XI en Quadragesimo Anno (1931), donde Pío asoció la justicia social con el logro del bien común y las obligaciones de los ricos como clase de cuidar a los pobres. (31)


A pesar de esta enseñanza papal, algunos teólogos católicos han respaldado en gran medida el punto de vista de Hayek. Michael Novak, por ejemplo, quiere restringir la noción de justicia social a la virtud individual. "La justicia social es una virtud, un atributo de los individuos, o es un fraude". (32) La noción no debe aplicarse a una economía, una entidad política o un sistema social en su conjunto.


Contrariamente a la enseñanza papal, Novak afirma que "en el momento en que uno comienza a definir la justicia social, se topa con dificultades intelectuales embarazosas... En otras palabras, se convierte en un instrumento de intimidación ideológica, con el propósito de obtener el poder de coerción legal". ". Novak afirma que "el nacimiento del concepto de justicia social coincidió con otros dos cambios en la conciencia humana: la 'muerte de Dios' y el surgimiento del ideal de una economía dirigida". 33 Debido a que todos los Papas desde Pío XI han respaldado la noción de justicia social, pero ninguno de ellos ha respaldado ni la muerte de Dios ni una economía dirigida, parecería que Novak no ha atendido los orígenes intelectuales de la idea católica de justicia social, tal vez porque en este tema mantiene una posición más cercana al libertarismo que al catolicismo.


Esta restricción de la justicia a las personas es compartida por varios otros neoconservadores que sostienen que "las estructuras en sí mismas no pueden ser buenas o malas". (34) Sin embargo, el Papa Juan Pablo II argumentó que las naciones necesitan reformar ciertas "estructuras injustas". (35) El pensamiento social católico rechaza las interpretaciones individualistas de la justicia.


Propiedad

Herejía #5: La propiedad es un derecho natural que le da al propietario control total sobre la cosa que posee. Para los libertarios, la propiedad tiende a ser un concepto unívoco. Las personas poseen bienes, ya sean terrenos u otras cosas, materiales o intelectuales. Una vez que una persona posee legítimamente algo, ya sea que lo haya producido o que lo haya obtenido legítimamente a cambio, ninguna otra persona o grupo tiene derecho a obligar al propietario a usarlo de una forma u otra. Qué es la propiedad y qué implican los derechos de propiedad no son en absoluto cuestiones sencillas, ya que se necesitan decenas de leyes para definir los derechos de propiedad (por ejemplo, ¿tiene su vecino de al lado derecho a convertir su garaje en una tienda de conveniencia?) y especificar cómo los inevitables conflictos sobre los derechos de propiedad deben resolverse.


La noción católica de propiedad tiene sus raíces en las Escrituras, la iglesia primitiva y las enseñanzas medievales. En las Escrituras hebreas, debido a que la tierra es un don de Dios, existe una sensación generalizada de que los ricos tienen la obligación de cuidar de los pobres, tanto por elección como por medio de requisitos legales, como reglas de cosecha y los años sabáticos y jubilares. El argumento católico clásico para entender la propiedad lo proporciona Tomás de Aquino, quien apoya la propiedad personal porque es eficiente pero, al mismo tiempo, insiste en el "uso común" de la propiedad, porque en la creación Dios pretende que los bienes materiales del la tierra satisface las necesidades de todos. Esta enseñanza ha sido reafirmada y extendida institucionalmente por todas las encíclicas sociales papales modernas. El Papa Juan Pablo II claramente abogó por que los gobiernos aumenten los impuestos para asegurar, por ejemplo, "en todos los casos el apoyo mínimo necesario al trabajador desempleado". (36)


Los católicos neoconservadores en general han evitado o minimizado las nociones de uso común y derechos económicos y, en cambio, piden una definición más estrecha de propiedad. En Economic Thinking for the Theologically Minded, (37) Samuel Gregg cita las tres razones que da Tomás de Aquino al defender la propiedad de la propiedad por parte de los individuos, pero no menciona las dos frases siguientes en las que Tomás explica la obligación de uso común: que "el hombre debe poseer las cosas externas, no como propias, sino como comunes, para que esté dispuesto a compartirlas con los demás en sus necesidades”. (38)


Un ejemplo típico de exageración neoconservadora de los derechos de propiedad ocurre cuando Santelli et al. argumentan que "en un mercado libre a las personas se les permite comprar, vender, poseer, intercambiar y consumir cualquier cosa sobre la que tengan un derecho legítimo". (39) Los autores parecen dar a entender aquí que es ilegítimo que el gobierno bloquee intercambios particulares, como el uso de información privilegiada o la venta de cocaína o votos el día de las elecciones. Philip Booth dice abiertamente que "los impuestos, por supuesto, violan la propiedad privada". (40)


La propiedad personal se valora mucho en la tradición católica, pero como dijo el Papa Juan II, "la propiedad privada, de hecho, está bajo una hipoteca social", (41) algo que la institucionalización legal de la propiedad debe respetar. Es revelador que los neoconservadores hayan ignorado en general la afirmación de Juan Pablo II de que la propiedad del capital es ilegítima si las ganancias no provienen de la creación de empleo en la sociedad sino de su reducción. (42)


El mercado

Herejía #6: El mercado es natural y moralmente neutral. Una de las convicciones fundamentales de la mayoría de los libertarios es que el mercado, donde los individuos se encuentran entre sí en un intercambio voluntario, es simplemente un intercambio natural y como tal es moralmente neutral en el sentido de que los individuos que voluntariamente contratan entre sí en el mercado proporcionan cualquier y todo significado asociado a los intercambios económicos. Hayek llega incluso a afirmar que esta neutralidad del mercado es un gran avance moral en la historia de la humanidad, que supera las culturas "tribales" tradicionales que han enfatizado el sentimiento de compañerismo dentro del grupo, un sentimiento detrás de guerras de todo tipo. (43)


La visión católica es que los mercados son en realidad construcciones humanas y que deben servir a la persona humana de manera subsidiaria y solidaria. El Papa Juan Pablo II dejó esto muy claro cuando habló de la necesidad de un "marco jurídico" adecuado para el mercado, en gran parte para evitar un desequilibrio de poder demasiado grande entre los participantes del mercado. (44)


Los católicos neoconservadores rara vez llegan tan lejos como Hayek, pero Santelli et al. Sostienen que "los mercados surgen natural y espontáneamente a partir de la lógica de la elección". (45) Su respaldo al individualismo metodológico y la visión de la acción humana de la escuela austriaca de economía llevan a la mayoría a estar de acuerdo en que comprender el significado de las interacciones del mercado "es sólo comprender el significado que los miembros individuales atribuyen a sus actividades". (46)


El neoconservador católico William McGurn aborda en parte la cuestión de la moralidad y la neutralidad del mercado al intentar trazar una clara línea entre dos áreas de la vida, una donde el mercado domina apropiadamente y otra donde no debería (donde los valores morales cristianos fundamentales exigen prohibiciones). en la vida económica contra la esclavitud, el aborto, los opiáceos, etc.). Sin embargo, esta bifurcación artificial de la vida está condenada al fracaso. Todo lo que sucede en los mercados incluye una dimensión moral, ya sean las relaciones entre empleados y empleadores, las transacciones de mercado que impactan el medio ambiente o los consumidores que compran bienes con la esperanza de lograr una vida mejor. En cada una de estas áreas, las fuerzas del mercado alientan ciertas estrategias y acciones y desalientan otras. Necesitamos una evaluación moral de todos ellos.


Los mercados no son ni naturales ni moralmente neutrales; se construyen, y la elección de reglas y regulaciones para los mercados (su marco jurídico) tiene un profundo impacto en la realización humana.


Nuestras opciones políticas

Herejía #7: Nuestra elección política hoy es entre mercados libres y planificación central. Una vez que suponen que el mercado o "la economía de mercado" es una entidad unívoca que tiene un solo significado (y que no depende de una miríada de decisiones sobre el marco jurídico), es bastante fácil para los libertarios suponer que nuestra elección política hoy es entre libre mercado y planificación central. Esto ha sido parte del argumento libertario durante muchos años.


Hay una gran ventaja retórica en pretender que ésta es la elección que enfrentamos. Sin embargo, mucho antes de la caída de la Unión Soviética, los debates que tuvieron lugar en las asambleas legislativas de las democracias occidentales no tuvieron nada que ver con esa elección, sino más bien con una elección entre formas alternativas de estructurar los mercados.


Una vez más, el Papa Juan Pablo II ha articulado esta idea mucho mejor que los neoconservadores que afirman respaldar sus puntos de vista. El discurso del Papa sobre el marco jurídico de los mercados y su afirmación tanto de sí como de no al evaluar el capitalismo sirve como recordatorio de que existen variedades de mercados y que en ellos están involucradas importantes decisiones morales. (47)


Los católicos neoconservadores, sin embargo, han optado falsamente por "mercados o planificación central". (48) Bastante típica es la afirmación de que debería haber "pocas restricciones, si es que hay alguna" en los mercados. (49)


Una parte considerable de este extremismo respecto de los mercados y el gobierno es atribuible a la frase "el libre mercado" porque nadie, ni siquiera los libertarios más radicales, recomienda realmente un mercado verdaderamente sin restricciones donde no hubiera leyes sobre lo que estaría permitido. Incluso los libertarios quieren que el gobierno haga cumplir las leyes contra el robo, la fuerza y el fraude, y otras perspectivas políticas a la izquierda del libertarismo tienen una lista más larga de prohibiciones que se consideran esenciales para que se produzca la justicia básica.


Así, una invisibilidad retóricamente ventajosa de muchas actividades gubernamentales necesarias es una parte central de la defensa libertaria y neoconservadora del libre mercado. Esta inclinación predominante a ignorar el papel beneficioso del gobierno aparece, por ejemplo, en los elogios neoconservadores al comercio más abierto: "La historia ha demostrado que el libre comercio es el mejor garante de los derechos humanos". (50) Sin embargo, pensar que el intercambio económico juega un papel más importante en los derechos humanos que las prohibiciones legales elegidas democráticamente contra las violaciones de los derechos humanos (es decir, leyes contra el asesinato, la tortura, la violación, etc.) parecería malinterpretar gravemente la causalidad social. 


El pensamiento social católico permite una variedad de opciones para estructurar la economía. Aquí es donde residen nuestras verdaderas opciones: no en un enfrentamiento ficticio entre el libre mercado y la planificación central.


Gobierno y economía

Herejía #8: Los gobiernos intervienen en los mercados, lo cual es malo. Nuestras descripciones anteriores de la filosofía política libertaria indican que los libertarios aspiran a un gobierno mínimo que imponga reglas contra el robo, la fuerza y el fraude, pero que no intervenga de otra manera en la vida de las personas. Por lo tanto, cualquier intento gubernamental de hacer que el mercado sea más justo no sólo está condenado al fracaso sino que también constituye una violación de los derechos de los individuos a interactuar entre sí como mejor les parezca.


La visión católica de los mercados, como hemos visto, requiere que los gobiernos establezcan un marco jurídico para estructurar los mercados para el bien común; por lo tanto, no es malo que los gobiernos tengan un papel importante en la definición de los mercados, siempre que se haga correctamente.


Los católicos neoconservadores apoyan firmemente a los libertarios en este tema. Si bien reconocen un papel más importante que los libertarios para el gobierno en la economía (por ejemplo, prohibir una serie de actividades moralmente objetables como la prostitución, el aborto, etc.), su discusión general sobre la acción del gobierno en los mercados emplea el paradigma no intervencionista. Así, Samuel Gregg define la intervención como "interferencia con los procesos naturales del mercado" (51) y objeta dicha intervención por estar basada en la noción falsa de que "el mercado no puede regularse a sí mismo". (52) Se opone a los "intervencionistas", que "no creen que el comercio dentro de un mercado libre producirá beneficios para todos los involucrados". (53) El pensamiento social católico moderno ha sostenido consistentemente que los mercados no pueden regularse por sí solos y que con frecuencia dejan a un gran número de personas fuera de los beneficios que generan para muchos.


Gregg también aboga por una distinción clara entre lo que él llama "el Estado de derecho" (una buena idea) y la regulación de la economía (una mala idea). (54) Sin embargo, no hay una línea clara entre ambos. Casi todas las formas de leyes y regulaciones relativas a la economía son prohibiciones de hacer algo o de hacerlo de alguna manera abusiva. La realidad es que al establecer reglas para la economía (tanto leyes como regulaciones), los gobiernos no intervienen en los mercados; estructuran los mercados, con el objetivo de prevenir los peores abusos. Los argumentos libertarios contra la intervención les resultan retóricamente útiles porque ese lenguaje implica una línea clara como la que Gregg intenta trazar. En realidad, por supuesto, el debate gira en torno a qué acciones o qué formas particulares de hacer algo son lo suficientemente abusivas como para que el gobierno debería prohibirlas. (55)


En el pensamiento social católico, los gobiernos no deben reemplazar los mercados sino estructurarlos al servicio de la justicia y el bien común.


Conveniente asimetría causal

Herejía #9: Las fallas relacionadas con el gobierno constituyen evidencia definitiva contra la dependencia del gobierno, pero las fallas relacionadas con el mercado no cuentan como evidencia contra la dependencia de los mercados. Los libertarios han empleado durante muchos años un doble rasero al evaluar los mercados y el gobierno: muestran una aversión a priori a depender del gobierno y una inclinación a priori a depender de los mercados. Así, por ejemplo, en el debate sobre la política educativa, el bajo rendimiento de un estudiante a menudo se atribuye a escuelas públicas mal administradas (un sistema gubernamental) y no a la familia, la cultura o el entorno urbano. Por otro lado, en los debates sobre el sistema de bienestar, el desempleo de un trabajador no calificado se atribuye a la familia y el entorno (la cultura de la pobreza) y no a un sistema de mercado que proporciona muy pocos empleos para el número de personas que los buscan.


El fracaso del gobierno a menudo se atribuye a las consecuencias no deseadas de legisladores miopes. Dado que ningún legislador es omnisciente, la solución libertaria es impedir que el gobierno tome tantas decisiones. Sin embargo, las consecuencias negativas no deseadas de las transacciones de mercado (como la contaminación atmosférica, las recesiones económicas o el consumismo) rara vez se culpan a los mercados y, en cambio, se describen como consecuencias desafortunadas de la libre iniciativa individual.


Los neoconservadores han empleado con bastante frecuencia el enfoque de doble rasero que los libertarios han encontrado popular. William McGurn analiza Enron y otros esquemas de corrupción corporativa y los ve no como el resultado de mercados donde las presiones competitivas alientan a tomar atajos morales, sino más bien como el resultado de una cultura defectuosa e individuos inmorales. (56) Robert Sirico describió de manera similar la corrupción y el fracaso de Long-Term Capital Management como "no un fracaso institucional sino un fracaso humano". Sirico llega incluso a decir: "¿Qué tiene que ver todo esto con la codicia corporativa o los fracasos del sistema capitalista? Nada. Los críticos que dicen que sí han confundido el error humano con una estructura social de pecado". (57) Philip Booth incluso atribuye la "explotación de individuos o recursos por parte de corporaciones multinacionales" en el mundo en desarrollo al fracaso de los gobiernos de esos países en cumplir sus funciones "de proteger y hacer cumplir los derechos de propiedad y los contratos". (58)


De manera similar, el consumismo (que los católicos neoconservadores han criticado con razón) no se entiende como un resultado desafortunado de que grandes empresas convenzan a la gente a través de publicidad para que compre cosas que no deberían, sino como el resultado de una cultura defectuosa, una elección individual débil y valores fuera de lugar. (59)


Detrás de este conjunto de argumentos está la cuestión de si los mercados fomentan la actividad virtuosa. Una amplia variedad de neoconservadores han argumentado que los mercados fomentan virtudes como la cooperación, la perseverancia y la honestidad porque con estas cosas es más probable tener éxito en el mercado. (60) Sin embargo, es mucho más exacto decir que el mercado fomentará cualquier cosa que le lleve a tener más éxito en el mercado. Los mercados fomentan no sólo las virtudes sino también algunas conductas muy desagradables, incluida la corrupción, el asesinato de los competidores (como está sucediendo actualmente en Rusia) y una serie de otras conductas moralmente disruptivas. La mayoría de ellos son menos obvios para nosotros en Estados Unidos porque son poco frecuentes: ya hemos aprobado leyes contra ellos, una contribución crítica del gobierno a la moralidad que los neoconservadores tienden a ignorar.


Conclusión

Las nueve herejías libertarias que acabamos de identificar se presentan aquí no como un tratado teológico sino simplemente para fomentar un pensamiento más claro sobre la relación entre la moralidad y la vida económica en la ética cristiana. Como se mencionó anteriormente, el argumento aquí ha sido que demasiados católicos neoconservadores han encontrado atractivas esas formas libertarias de pensar y han integrado elementos "no católicos" del pensamiento y la retórica libertaria en sus argumentos morales, al tiempo que afirman simultáneamente que están dentro de la ideología católica romana. tradición.


No pretendo que ningún católico neoconservador respalde alguna de estas herejías libertarias exactamente como los definen los libertarios (aunque algunos se acercan) o que alguien se sienta tentado por las nueve. Sin embargo, hay pruebas suficientes de que la discrepancia entre las posiciones de los católicos neoconservadores y de la Iglesia sobre la economía es grande. Los neoconservadores han hecho una lectura muy selectiva de la enseñanza oficial de la Iglesia en las últimas décadas y emplean una orientación más individualista de lo que la teología moral católica puede garantizar. (Debo añadir aquí que muchos católicos liberacionistas de izquierda también se involucran en una selección análoga del pensamiento social católico en defensa de su posición.)


Mi esperanza aquí no es provocar irritación y menos aún insultar a los colegas que se esfuerzan por relacionar la vida económica y la moral cristiana. Más bien, esto es un llamado a una articulación más cuidadosa y autocrítica de la visión del pensamiento social católico y a evitar la tentación de considerar el libre mercado y la libertad individual como primeros principios y luego emplear sólo aquellas partes del pensamiento social católico que proporcionar garantías para este punto de partida. Nuestro mundo globalizado necesita comprender toda la profundidad y complejidad de la tradición católica.


Daniel K. Finn

Profesor de teología y Clemens Profesor de Economía y artes liberales

Universidad de San Juan

viernes, 22 de septiembre de 2023

Dane Leitch (2011). Hard Questions: An Exegetical Exploration of Philippians 2:5-11

 Introduction

Few easy answers are discernable from Scripture. Every time “the Bible clearly states” is uttered, somewhere an angel falls from grace out of frustration. Philippians 2:5-11 is the poster child for difficult questions and even more difficult answers. Biblical scholarship has been enamored with the poetic nature of these verses for generations and generations have yet to pass before the last word will be spoken. Although answers are difficult to cull from these words shared by Paul, each attempt peels another layer from the cocoon of uncertainty. A detailed look at the conundrum that is Philippians 2:5-11 has filled volumes, but an overview of the primary issues helps clarify the situation and leads toward answering some very hard questions.


Literary Criticism

The starting point for an exegetical overview of Philippians 2:5-11 must begin with the most basic of literary questions. As far as the letter to the church in Philippi is concerned, “Paul’s authorship of this letter has rarely been doubted.”  Immediately, this fact tempts a reader to merely accept Pauline authorship of the section in question and let bygones be bygones. Such an approach fails to deal with the issue of authorship adequately. Arguments have been made that Paul has waxed poetic before (1 Corinthians 13) and could be doing so again here.  A lack of common Pauline language, however, suggests completely different authorship.  The fact that this text has been taken over by Paul and not written by the apostle has even been called obvious.  Who then authored these words? 


The text itself lends hints toward its original author. Use of kurioV iesouV cristo suggests a Hellenistic creator as opposed to a Jewish author.  Yet, a large list of possible authors have been suggested, heterodox Judaism, Iranian religion, Greek epic tradition, political circumstances, Gnosticism, all could be the tradition from which this text arose.  Hints and shadows do not fully identify the author. More information is necessary before a conclusion can be reached.
Dating, perhaps, can lend the needed hint for authorship. The date of Paul’s use of this hymn is most easily identifiable. Two theories for dating Philippians hold water. Traditional scholarship dates the letter to the Philippians during Paul’s imprisonment in Rome at the end of his life circa 56-60 CE.  An alternative train of thought has suggested a dating for this letter of the early 50’s CE.  If Paul is understood to have authored the piece of poetry, than the dating of 50-60 CE would be appropriate. If Paul merely used the work of another, the more likely possibility, the piece must not only have been written before Paul’s use, but must also have established circulation in at least the Philippian church. Further detail than the broad 35-50 CE range is currently impossible.
Since authorship and dating prove resistant to questioning, perhaps a different tact will be fruitful. More solid decisions may be made in regard to the genre and audience. Study of the text shows near universal acceptance of the hymnic nature these words possess. Although the use, origin, and meaning are all widely disputed, lack of citation shows scholars to believe it common knowledge that the poem is a hymn. “Philippians 2:5-11 is a magnificent hymn, extolling many distinctive doctrines of the Christian faith.”  Martin sees the “stately and solemn ring of the words and the way in which the sentences are constructed” as undeniable evidence of the cultic & confessional aspect of the text which lends itself to a Carmen Christi of the early church.  As far as genre is concerned, Philippians 2:5-11 is most certainly a hymn. 
Paul, himself, points out the intended audience of his use of the text in the introduction to Philippians (1:1). The letter is addressed specifically to the overseers and deacons, which suggests that Paul wanted to not only contact the church as a whole, but sought to pass on teaching to the leadership of the community.  Knowing the genre and audience of the hymn helps to clarify the purpose. Hooker follows her thoughts on the passing on of teaching with the suggestion that there is a non-specific heresy floating around the Philippian church.  Identifying Paul’s audience as the leadership of the church can be filed for later as the layers are slowly stripped. The original audience of the hymn can be inferred as the early church. The Christological and soteriological nature of the text, paired with poetic writing suggest an easily memorized doctrine clarifying the stance of the newly forming Christian wing of Judaism. 

Form Criticism
That same universal acceptance of the hymnic nature of Philippians 2:5-11 does not lead scholars to a unified stance on the structure of the text. Two primary camps exist in regard to an understanding of how the text comes together. Depending on which camp a student finds themselves in will subsequently alter conclusions in regard to the extent of redaction to which the text has been subjected. It should be noted that the New Revised Standard Version accepts a variation of Lohmeyer’s structure.
Lohmeyer founded the first of the two schools of thought, while Cerfaux and Jeremias are given dual credit for the second.  Lohmeyer organized the hymn into six stanzas of three lines each.  The Cerfaux-Jeremias structure splits the text into three stanzas of four lines.  Other suggests generally fall along the lines of these overarching themes. Although not a direct part of this study, the first four verses of Philippians 2 also display a carefully crafted structure.  This observation helps to point out another hint toward answering some of the hard questions. Even if Paul did not write the hymn of verses 5-11 his poetic introduction and the surrounding text show him to have carefully selected this text for inclusion in his letter.
Much like the situation with authorship, more information is needed before a conclusion on structure can be reached. For the moment, merely noting the possibilities of Lohmeyer’s six stanzas, Cerfaux-Jeremias’ three stanzas, or an alternative is sufficient. The questions continue with the text itself.


Textual Criticism
Manuscripts of Philippians 2:6-11 are remarkably consistent. Only a few slight discrepancies exist and those can easily be regarded as inconsequential. Metzger records issues in verses 7, 9, and 11.  
The word anqropoV in verse 7 is occasionally written plural and occasionally singular. From an interpretative standpoint, if anqropoV is singular then Christ took the form of a man. If plural then Christ took the form of men. Either translation leads to only a slight difference in interpretation. The singular would suggest that Christ Jesus took the form of a specific man while the plural offers a more general humanness. For non-specific reasons the committee chose the plural formation.
To onomati in verse 9 also presents a minor difficulty. In Koine Greek, to is the definite article. Some manuscripts omit the to. Omission suggests a non-specific name as opposed to a very specific name. Due to to being the final syllable of the word immediately preceding onomati, the omission may be dismissed as a clerical error. 
CristoV in verse 11 is the final textual discrepancy. Some of the western manuscripts omit CristoV entirely.  The problem with its omission is that losing the title Christ greatly reduces the overall effect of the name above every name. Metzger contends that the purpose for this omission is unclear and the committee choice to retain the term due to a general lack of compelling evidence as to why the word would be excluded. 
Although the manuscripts are mostly intact and agree with one another the manner in which other terms should be translated causes great argument. Coincidentally, there are three interpretive difficulties to match the three manuscript disagreements. Morphe, ekenosen, and the aforementioned onomati. 
Interpreting morphe requires a wider set of sources than just the biblical text. Lightfoot goes into great detail distinguishing between morphe here and schema elsewhere.  In deciphering the word it seems clear that morphe is not just a resemblance or surface similarity, but a very strong connection, the very essence of a thing.  Collange is unconvinced by this argument yet does not address the extra biblical usage.  Aristotle, the great philosopher, described some great image that makes all things identifiable. An observer identifies an object as a chair because it contains some intrinsic form that fulfills the essence of “chair.” Lightfoot presents the word morphe with this same understanding.  He continues by listing other uses Paul made of the word morphe (Romans 8:29, Romans 12:2, 2 Corinthians 3:18, Galatians 4:19 and Philippians 3:10).   All these uses are referencing the deep change that Christ brings into a person’s life. Such an understanding of morphe and the idea that Jesus took on both the morphe of God and the morphe of humanity solidifies a divine Christology of this hymn. Only God could have the power to take on the very essence of more than one object. A brief additional difficulty with morphe is that if it is understood as an equivalent of eikon, then the hymn would reinforce Second Adam Christology.  Doxa is also a suggested equivalent, but neither garners sufficient support to take seriously. 
Ekenosen and to onomati cause issue due to the inability to specifically identify what it is Jesus emptied himself of and what name, exactly, is being given. Paul has used ekenosen in other texts to reference the idea of becoming powerless or emptying a thing of significance.  Little reason exists to think this use should be understood differently. Jesus emptying himself is best understood in a relative sense as opposed to a literal complete sense. Compared to the fullness of God, humanity is an empty shell. Jesus did not lose all that made him divine, but narrowed his perspective to that of humanity. He moved from infinite to finite.
To onomati also lacks specificity. What name is being given? One possibility is the name “Jesus.” Having been given to Jesus by his mother after being instructed to do so, that very name Yeshua, “savior,” could be the name. Martin argues for kurioV being the name given.  Since kurioV is the LXX rendering of YHWH this interpretation places extremely high Christological significance on the hymn. The salvific references in the hymn support the former understanding, the name savior, to carry enough weight to make that interpretation plausible. Whoever authored this poetic piece of literature could very well have intended the double meaning of savior and YHWH. Combining these two theories is favorable and supportable by the nature of poetry.
Although insightful and necessary for interpretation, these textual issues only give a little help toward answering the hard questions of authorship and structure. Patience is a vital virtue in pulling these accounts together in order to reach answers. Again, more information is needed. 


Redaction Criticism
What has been redacted requires a decision on structure and structure requires a decision on what has been redacted. This catch twenty-two must be addressed in order to move forward in the exegesis of Philippians 2:5-11. Fortunately, addressing redactions directly can answer some of the structural questions. Lohmeyer and Cerfaux-Jeremias each present a structure that requires additions of some kind to have been made. This editor was most likely Paul. Lohmeyer’s structure needs to have verse 8 added by Paul; while Cerfaux-Jeremias see verses 8, 10, and 11 as Pauline additions.  
What then are glosses by Paul and what are original to the hymn? A brief look at verse 5 will show Paul’s intentions for the hymn.  Paul’s use of the hymn is ethical in nature.  This ethical use is not affected by the glosses, whatever they may be.  Those facts suggest Paul had no concern for the continuity of the piece. Any number of additions or subtractions may have been made. Collange has attempted to bridge a gap by accepting verse 8 as original to the hymn. He adapts Lohmeyer’s structure with verse 8 added.  The hard question of redaction is answerable by understanding the hymn to have some Pauline additions which maintain the gist of the metric structure while reworking the hymn to make a specific point.
Although Paul uses a version of the hymn here to make a point, there are other places in which these words are found. John 13:3-7 contains sufficient similarities to suggest either a common liturgy or one author copying another.  Gibbs sees this particular use of Philippians 2:5-11 as an attempt to explain the relationship between God’s redemptive work and Jesus; he considers it the earliest homologia.  If Gibbs is correct then it would only make since that both the author of John and Paul would pick up on this for such important teachings. Since both the Johannine use and the Pauline use contain the instruction to “do this also,” drawing on the same source seems less likely than the author of John drawing on Paul’s redacted version of the text. This additional uses does not show significant differences, not even a move away from the ethical understanding of the piece.
The only option is to accept the hymn as a whole. Even if Paul edited the original beyond traceability, Johannine tradition upholds Paul’s view. Such a close relationship between John 13 and Philippians 2 could not exist if the John source disagreed with any of Paul’s glosses, assuming that there are any glosses. As to the hard question of redaction, it is a moot point. Paul was a part of the first generation of Christianity. He was a formative leader in the early church. For many of what would become the influential churches of Christianity, his word was law, so to speak. Any additions made by Paul are accepted later in Scripture and thus become a part of the original. There is no longer any tangible way to separate additions from original because it all becomes original.
This conclusion has ramifications for the outstanding hard questions above. Pauline glosses disregarded as unwelcome additions and instead accepted as part of the original impact the understood structure of the hymn. The break in metric that so bothered Lohmeyer, must be accepted as a kind of explanation point used to emphasize that aspect of the poem. Paul may then be accepted as the author, perhaps not the original author, but the author so far as future use is concerned. Textual concerns, especially in regard to non-Pauline language, are left as hard questions, but through using the train of thought above, a reader may accept there to be a previous groundwork on which Paul built this hymn. Further criticisms help to illustrate and support these conclusions.


Source Criticism
Scripturally speaking there are obvious similarities between the Philippian hymn and the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53.  This comparison could be used to suggest a Jewish-Christian origin of the text. The comparison supports Pauline authorship. Having grown up as a Jew away from Jerusalem and later receiving his education in that city easily explains the use of Old Testament Scriptures. As pointed out in Redaction Criticism above, Paul continues to use the themes presented in Philippians 2:5-11. His favored use of the themes and Old Testament allusions further support Pauline authorship. Isaiah is not the only ancient text to be suggested as being comparable to the Philippian hymn. The famous Wisdom in Proverbs 8, Sirach 24, and Wisdom of Solomon 2-7 have been pointed out by Martin as a necessity for interpreting the hymn.  Less convincingly, Collange cites Deichgraber’s comparison of the songs of Moses and Deborah (Exodus 15 and Judges 5 respectively).  Both suggestions complicate the matter by saying loose similarities are needed for interpretation. Any association between the hymn and those texts can just as easily be explained by Paul’s intense knowledge and study of the Old Testament and other Jewish texts. 
Cultural sources suggest the work to be of, ancient Iranian-Jewish influence, Gnostic influence, or Hellenistic origin. Supposing cultural influence is permitted to be deeply traced, one can appreciate Lohmeyer’s conclusion that the Iranian-Jewish Son of Man mythos influenced the Servant of the Lord in Isaiah, which subsequently influenced the Philippian hymn.  Such a cumbersome trail is difficult to follow. The statement that the Iranian-Jewish Son of Man mythos had no direct influence over the Philippian hymn which was written some 700-800 years after the former had any possible affect on Isaiah, can be safely made.
Gnostic influences are also cited. The use of morphe could be an allusion the “heavenly man” in the Gnostic mythos, but Martin is unconvinced.  Collange, however, sees the Gnostic vocabulary within the hymn as an intentional attack on the ideas of Gnosticism.  Paul could be using the hymn as such with the edits he included. Although such glosses may be included to combat Gnosticism, the original source of the hymn appears more doctrinal than apologetic. 
Lewis understands the cultural ramifications of morphe differently. He supports the these that morphe is the word used by Aristotle in his philosophical understanding of how a chair is recognized because of its essential chair-ness.  Such an interpretation points toward strong Hellenistic influence, which, subsequently, also supports the theory of Pauline authorship. Paul, being raised as a Roman citizen, would have received not only the Jewish education of the time, but also be well versed in Hellenistic literature and philosophy. Since both Jewish and Hellenistic sources have been convincingly presented, who better to bridge the gap than Paul? Scriptural and Cultural sources both support Pauline authorship.

 
Social Historical Criticism
Social Historical issues finalize Pauline authorship. Pliny describes the singing of hymns as second in his list of descriptors of the First Century church.  Paul, being a founder of so many of these first churches, undeniably had influence over their mode of worship. Even if he allowed his Jewish worship habits to dominate liturgical teaching, they too point toward the use of hymns. Martin shows that the borrowing of Psalms from Judaism and singing them at gatherings began in Palestine sometime in this same first generation of the Way.  This adaptation could be a Pauline use of cultural movements. 
Further socio-historical implications are drawn from the composition of the city of Philippi. Many of the people within this city would not have been Jewish, but proud citizens of the Greco-Roman world.  The lack of a Jewish synagogue, as pointed out in Acts 16, further supports Hooker’s conclusion. These Philippian citizens would adhere to the Imperial Cult in the same way as most of the Roman world. In their mind Caesar is kurioV.  Paul’s suggestion that someone else is lord would have certainly grasped their attention. So too would verse 8’s “even death on the cross,” capture Philippian attention. The cross of the Roman world was a powerful symbol of the Empire’s strength and idea of justice. For Paul to suggest that the true kurioV was crucified instead of crucifying is a jab at the Philippian mindset. 
What then of the church itself? Paul apparently sees dissent of some kind within the church. His words in 1:15 and 4:2 clearly state divisions and competition amongst the leadership. Their squabbling could even escalate to the point that the church itself dissolves.  In such dire straits, strong words that carry both ethical weight, to correct their actions, and doctrinal weight, to pull them together under common teaching, is an elegant solution. Paul’s excellent use of double meaning, most notably proved throughout Galatians, show that no one meaning is needed in the interpretation of Paul’s works. Although his obvious use, as explained by his words in Philippians 2:5, is an ethical correction, no strong reason to dismiss a second meaning of teaching and guidance exists. Paul’s brilliance is evidence in the bridging of the issues and undercurrents in the Philippian church and the mindset of the proud Roman Provence.


Praxis
Hard questions have been addressed above, but what final answers may be given? In a practical sense Paul wants the Philippian church to mimic Jesus in pouring themselves out and allowing God to receive all the glory. Such a simple interpretation carries into modernity as an exquisite teaching on humility. The issue of asking hard questions deserves greater attention. An unwillingness to question the text of Scripture misses the purpose of this book. Understanding the impact of words written thousands of years ago requires deep thought. Although the Philippian hymn may be taken as ethical teaching and doctrine the most helpful practical use of the text is the benefit of asking questions to which there may be no simple answers. “The Bible clearly states” is terrible. Studying where God’s Word does not clearly state is what will grow, develop, and solidify faith. That is a use of this hymn of which Paul would be proud.


Christopher M. Date (2016). By Command of God Our Savior: A Defense of the Pauline Authorship of the Pastoral Epistles

https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=djrc


Introduction

   “It is one of the received traditions in New Testament scholarship,” writes Stanley Porter, “that Paul is not the author of the Pastoral Epistles, a view held by the vast majority of scholars.”1 Although a few buck the trend, arguing instead that Paul did write the Pastoral Epistles (PE)—1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus—“most other scholars,” according to I. Howard Marshall and Philip Towner, “now take it almost as an unquestioned assumption that the PE are not the work of Paul.”2 Christian scholars who accept the consensus see the PE as nevertheless canonical and authoritative.

   However, unbelieving biblical scholars like Bart Ehrman leverage the science of historical criticism to cast doubt on the reliability and authority of biblical books, including the PE, by calling into question their traditionally accepted authorship. While giving lip service to the possibility that their contents may nevertheless reflect genuine Christian teaching, Ehrman clearly wants readers to believe they do not, for he says that, by lying to and deceiving audiences by whom they would not want to be lied to and deceived, their authors “did not live up to one of the fundamental principles of the Christian tradition, taught by Jesus himself, that you should ‘do unto others as you would have them do unto you.’”3 No doubt many Christians will naturally wonder whether the PE should be treated as authoritative if Ehrman is right, and may lose a great deal of trust in the rest of the Bible—or cease altogether to follow Jesus.

   On the other hand, of the thirteen epistles attributed to Paul—Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Philemon, and the three PE—the PE are argued to be the most obviously pseudepigraphal (not actually written by the author they claim wrote them). If the case made by Ehrman and other like-minded scholars rests on shaky ground, and if the case for their authenticity is compelling, Christians are likely to find their faith bolstered, both in the reliability of Scripture, and in Jesus himself.

As it turns out, the evidence offered for denying the apostle Paul wrote the PE is unpersuasive, and explanations thereof, consistent with Pauline authorship, are quite plausible. Meanwhile, other evidence is best explained if Paul really was the author of the PE: the early church’s belief that Paul wrote the PE; their underdeveloped references to the false teachings of which they warn, implying their recipients did not need detail to identify them; so-called “undesigned coincidences” between them and other NT writings; and the abundant similarities between the PE and the undisputed Pauline letters. Christians are thus on solid ground in accepting the traditional Pauline authorship of the PE and other disputed epistles, and need not doubt their reliability or authority.


Examination of Evidence Against 

Examination of Evidence Against “For most modern critical scholars,” writes James Aageson, the question of Pauline authorship “has been largely settled for some time.4 Among their reasons, Aageson includes “linguistic and theological dissimilarities with the seven undisputed Pauline letters,” “the difficulty of situating these three letters in the chronology of Paul’s ministry,” and “the new and seemingly more developed sense of church structure, authority, and leadership reflected in the Pastorals.”5 Each of these features prominently in Ehrman’s case against Pauline authorship, with the exception of chronology. Chronology will therefore be examined here first. 


Chronology

 As explained by Porter, “The view that the Pastoral Epistles are pseudepigraphal began with the difficulty of fitting them within the Pauline chronology, especially 1 Timothy.”6 Porter offers Udo Schnelle as characteristic of German critics who expound this difficulty. Schnelle is insistent: “The historical situation presupposed in the Pastoral Epistles cannot be harmonized either with the data of Acts or with that of the authentic Pauline letters.”7 As the basis for his certainty, Schnelle first offers 1 Timothy 1:3, which presents Paul as urging Timothy to remain in Ephesus as he had done when he left for Macedonia. Acts 19:22, on the other hand, records Paul remaining in Ephesus while sending Timothy to Macedonia, while the next chapter has Paul following him there, and the two of them heading together to Jerusalem a few months later (20:1, 4). And Titus, Schnelle demands, cannot have been written by Paul, because Acts makes no mention either of a mission on Crete (Titus 1:5) or Paul’s stay at Nicopolis (3:12).8 

  Porter observes a certain irony in Schnelle’s argument, for “the long-standing tradition of German criticism of Acts and the Pastoral Epistles is to doubt the historical veracity of Acts,” and so drawing conclusions about authorship of the latter, based on comparison with the former, “appears to be special pleading of the most egregious sort.”9 What is more, the argument appears to presume that any events recorded in the PE must also be recorded in Acts in order to be considered genuine.10 Yet, as Luke Johnson points out, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans— all deemed authentic by Ehrman—record events in Paul’s life not recorded in Acts (e.g., 2 Cor 11:23–24; Gal 1:2; 4:13–14; Rom 15:19).11 In fact, “All [Paul’s] letters together inform us magnificently of the fact that Acts ignores completely: that Paul wrote letters to his churches!”12 And so one need not be able to fit the PE into the chronology of Acts in defense of Pauline authorship. Like many of Paul’s other letters, the PE may simply reflect elements of the apostle’s life not recorded elsewhere. 

   Thus, Porter concludes, “the most plausible explanation seems to be that neither Paul’s letters nor Acts gives a complete chronology of Paul’s life and travels, and hence it is impossible to decide on the basis of chronological issues what to do with the Pastoral Epistles.”13 Lydia McGrew concurs, noting that Acts ends with Paul in prison, and that Paul would surely have continued writing letters after being freed and until his death.14 Perhaps this is why chronology oes not appear to feature in Ehrman’s popular or academic work, no longer seen as the challenge it once was. 


Vocabulary 

  Ehrman instead begins his survey of modern arguments against the Pauline authorship of the PE with vocabulary. “There are 848 different words used in the pastoral letters. Of that number 306—over one-third of them!—do not occur in any of the other Pauline letters of the New Testament.”15 In other words, “over one-third of the vocabulary is not Pauline.”16 Walter Lock admits the challenge posed to Pauline authorship of the PE by the uniqueness of their vocabulary, adding that hapax legomena—words appearing only once in the NT—range in frequency from eight to thirteen per page in 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Galatians, Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Philippians, but as many as nineteen to twenty-one per page in the PE. 17 On the other hand, Ehrman includes 2 Thessalonians among the deutero-Pauline (pseudepigraphal) epistles, despite its infrequent use of such words. If their frequency in the PE is evidence against Pauline authorship, should not their infrequency in 2 Thessalonians serve as evidence for it? Perhaps, then, Ehrman and others make too much of the uniqueness of PE vocabulary. Indeed, Lock observes that of the 2,500 distinct words attributed to Paul in the NT, roughly half of them appear in just one letter or another. As Terry Wilder puts it, “differences exist within the other Pauline letters which are just as extensive as those between the Pastorals and the rest of the Pauline corpus.”18 One therefore has little reason to disagree with Lock in saying Paul merely exhibits “a great choice of vocabulary and fondness for different groups of words at different times,” a variety similar to that exhibited by the works of Shakespeare.19 Besides, Porter notes that these kinds of statistical analyses are highly dependent on methodology, and that the studies of some researchers, making what they believe are better methodological decisions, counter the claims of Ehrman and the like.20 For these and other reasons, Porter concludes, “it is extremely difficult to use statistics to determine Pauline authorship of the Pastoral Epistles.”21 

   Both Ehrman and Lock, however, point out that more challenging to Pauline authorship is the popularity of the Pastorals’ unique vocabulary in the second century. “Strikingly,” Ehrman writes, “over two-thirds of these non-Pauline words are used by Christian authors of the second century.”22 Lock breaks the numbers down: Of the words to which Ehrman refers, “61 occur in the Apostolic Fathers, 61 in the Apologists, 32 of which are not in the Apostolic Fathers, making 93 in all; and 82 words which are not found either in the N.T. or in these Christian writers are found in Pagan writers of the 2nd century.”23 This, Ehrman argues, “suggests that this author is using a vocabulary that was becoming more common after the days of Paul, and that he too therefore lived after Paul.”24 Lock is not convinced, however, because the vocabulary of second- century Christian writers may have been influenced by the PE. 25 One would expect first-century writings received as Pauline to influence the vocabulary of second-century Christians and the pagans with which they interact. And there is no evidence that such vocabulary could not have originated earlier than the second century. Indeed, William Mounce observes that of the vocabulary in the PE not found elsewhere in Paul, over 90% can be found in writings prior to A.D. 50.26 J. D. Douglas, Merrill Tenney, and Moisés Silva go so far as to say that “detailed study . . . has shown that the Pastoral Letters contain not one single word that was foreign to the age in which Paul lived and could not have been used by him.”27 

   Mounce offers a number of external influences as having plausibly influenced Paul’s vocabulary in the PE. During his four-year imprisonment in Caesarea and Rome, for example, he may have learned Latin so as to be able to minister further westward, which may account for the many words and phrases in the PE which originate in Latin.28 The nature of the heresies the author opposes may also have been unique in Paul’s experience, calling for the use of words not used elsewhere, just as new subject matter specific to the circumstances of the Corinthians and Romans called for the use of words peculiar to Paul’s letters to them.29 From these and other such influences, Mounce concludes, “Every person’s writing style and word choices are, to some degree, affected by the external influences of the particular situation of writing. While the PE do show some differences from what is found in other Pauline letters written to different historical situations and addressing different needs, the use of statistical analysis has far outreached itself.”30 

   A third challenge Ehrman poses from vocabulary, and which cannot be easily explained by external influences and motivations, is the alleged inconsistency between the meaning the author of the PE gives to words that are used elsewhere in the undisputed Pauline corpus, and what they mean there. “The term ‘faith’ [pistis]” for example, refers in the undisputed Pauline letters “to the trust a person has in Christ to bring about salvation through his death” (e.g., Rom 1:12; Gal 2:16), but in the PE it “means the body of teaching that makes up the Christian religion.”31 Ehrman sees this as reflecting a proto-orthodox set of doctrines that developed later in response to groups deemed heretical, like the Gnostics.32 Similarly, “Paul’s word for ‘having a right standing before God’ (literally, ‘righteous’ [dikaios])”—e.g., in Romans 2:13—“now means ‘being a moral individual’ (i.e., ‘upright’; Titus 1:8).33 Yet, pistis does, in fact, seem to refer to a body of doctrine at times in the Pauline corpus (e.g., 1 Cor 16:13; 2 Cor 13:5; Gal 1:23; Phil 1:27). So too does dikaios at times mean something like “right” (e.g., Rom 5:7; 7:12; Phil 4:8). Ehrman’s claim, then, that the author of the PE understood terms differently than the real Paul, is unconvincing. 

    In the end, the uniqueness of vocabulary in the PE poses no real challenge to their authenticity. Paul exhibits a willingness to vary his choice of words throughout his correspondence, often using language specially and uniquely suited to the occasion, and the author’s use of terms that do appear in Paul’s undisputed epistles is consistent with their use there by Paul. 


Content 

     Ehrman acknowledges that arguments from vocabulary are not decisive, but his is a cumulative case that combines the aforementioned lexical evidence for a second-century provenance of the PE with evidence that their content is characteristically second-century in nature. The author’s references, for example, to “myths and endless genealogies” (1 Tim 1:4), to false teachers “who forbid marriage and require abstinence from foods” (4:3), and to that which “is falsely called ‘knowledge’ [gnōsis]” (6:20) all strike Ehrman as most consistent with secondcentury Gnosticism.34 Johnson notes, however, the characterization of the faith’s opponents by the PE often follows rhetorical conventions of polemic, contemporaneous with Paul, and one cannot therefore determine with confidence the identity of the opponents and thereby place the PE in history.35 Meanwhile, Marshall and Towner observe that the various elements of the opposition’s heresy, including its Jewish myths (Tit 1:14; cf. 1 Tim 1:4; 2 Tim 4:4), asceticism (1 Tim 4:3), and claimed knowledge of God (Tit 1:16; cf. 1 Tim 6:20), as well as the author’s claim to be a teacher of the Gentiles (1 Tim 2:7), to whom he insists salvation is available (1 Tim 2:4 –6; Tit 2:11), can be explained as an early Jewish-Christian sect without recourse to secondcentury Gnosticism.36 “Despite the widespread support which it has received,” they conclude, “the identification of the heresy in the PE as a form of Gnosticism is not only an unnecessary hypothesis but also a distortion of the evidence.”37 While the false teachings of the early sect opposed by the PE may have been a sort of “incipient Gnosticism,” John Rutherford argues that the author would have used language clearly pointing to the more developed Gnosticism of the second century if it were what he had intended to combat.38 

      Ehrman also argues that whereas genuinely Pauline churches in the first century were non-hierarchical, charismatic communities in which no one exercised authority because everyone was endowed with gifts from the Holy Spirit, the churches overseen by the stated recipients of the PE are instead governed by a hierarchical authority that had not yet developed until the second century, after the church had come to terms with the reality that Christ was not to return as soon as previously expected. 39 As Johnson puts the challenge, “Christianity in the Pastorals has come to grips with the delay of the parousia and is adjusting to continued existence in the world by creating an institutional structure.”40 Responding to the challenge, Johnson points out, among other things: that allusions to hierarchy in the PE are scattered and insufficient to paint a complete picture of church order; that they resemble the order of first-century synagogues and Greco-Roman collegia more than they do second-century Christian ones; that whatever hierarchical development has occurred since an earlier time, characterized by more charismatic communities, need not have taken decades; and that Paul does, in fact, recognize authority figures in his undisputed epistles, such as overseers and deacons in Philippians 1:1 and Romans 16:1, and the fellow-workers and laborers of 1 Corinthians 16:15–17 and 1 Thessalonians 5:12.41 Furthermore, Rutherford notes that whereas the PE demand a “presbyterial administration” by bishops, elders, and deacons (1 Tim 3; Tit 1:5), the church in the second century had developed a “monarchial episcopacy.”42 To whatever small degree the PE place a greater emphasis on appointed ministries and their qualifications than do the undisputed Pauline letters, E. Earle Ellis attributes it to the increasing threat of false teachers faced by Paul’s churches, saying the PE “represent an understandable development of [Paul’s] earlier usage.”43 As Douglas, Tenney, and Silva put it, “It is also very natural that Paul . . . should specify certain qualifications for office, so that the church might be guarded against the ravages of error, both doctrinal and moral.”44 Johnson concludes, “When all these points are taken into account, the issue of church order in the Pastorals turns out to be nondeterminative for their authenticity.”45 

      Ehrman points to two additional issues in the content of the PE as evidence against their authenticity. First, whereas the real Paul is allegedly unconcerned with orthodoxy-protecting creeds, “in the Pastoral epistles what is of critical importance is ‘the teaching,’ that is, the body of knowledge conveyed by the apostle, sometimes simply designated as ‘the faith.’”46 But as demonstrated earlier, references to such bodies of doctrine using pistis exist in the undisputed Pauline corpus. And as Wilder points out, in them Paul does, in fact, stress the importance of received tradition (e.g., 1 Cor 11:2), and draws upon early creedal sayings and hymns (e.g., 1 Cor 15:3–5; Phil 2:6–8).47 Second, Ehrman argues that the appeal in 1 Timothy 5:18 to a passage from the Torah alongside a saying of Jesus (Luke 10:7), together identified by the author as “Scripture,” reflects a proto-orthodox development of authoritative canon not seen in the lifetime of Paul.48 However, this appeal to an authoritative NT writing is alone in the PE, and is underdeveloped if anything. It seems eminently plausible that the later proto-orthodox developed such a canonical view of the NT because they found the germ of one in Paul and Peter (2 Pet 3:16). 

    The content, therefore, of the PE does not appear to challenge their Pauline authorship. The false teachings they oppose are easily placed in the first-century lifetime of Paul; the church structure called for by their author represents at most only a slight and warranted development of the offices Paul calls for in his undisputed letters; and their apparent appeal to creeds is consistent with genuinely Pauline literature, their underdeveloped appeal to canon no meaningful challenge to inclusion therein.

 

Examination of Evidence For 

    Of course, from the absence of persuasive evidence against the authenticity of the PE it does not follow that they should therefore be presumed genuine. However, at least four lines of evidence argue in favor of their Pauline authorship: external evidence in the form of early church ascription of Pauline authorship; and internal evidence in the form of vague, unclear references to false teaching only the author’s stated recipients would recognize, “undersigned coincidences” between the PE and events recorded in Acts, and a vast array of similarities between the PE and the undisputed Pauline letters. 


Early Christian Witness 

    Guthrie observes that while “there is a modern tendency to play down the significance of the external evidence . . . it is only against the background of early Christian views about the Epistles that a fair assessment can be made of modern theories unfavorable to Pauline authorship.”49 And the external evidence is clear: The early church consensus was that the PE were written by Paul. 

   The epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians constitutes a very early extra-biblical assignment of Pauline authorship to the PE. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Coxe date it to “about the middle of the second century.”50 Kenneth Berding dates it earlier, preferring A.D. 120, but for the sake of argument accepts a later date of A.D. 135.51 And while he acknowledges that the earlier letters of Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch contain some possible allusions to the PE, he says they are uncertain, identifying Polycarp as the first post- canonical Christian writer to clearly quote from them.52 Berding argues that by clustering such quotations together with others from the undisputed letters, after explicitly mentioning Paul’s name, Polycarp definitively exhibits belief in the Pauline authorship of the PE. For example, in chapters 3 and 4, after referring to “the wisdom of the blessed and glorified Paul,” Polycarp draws from two undisputed Pauline epistles, writing of “that faith which . . . is the mother of us all” (compare Gal 4:26, “the Jerusalem above is . . . our mother”) and of “the armor of righteousness” (compare 2 Cor 6:7, “the weapons of righteousness,” and Rom 6:13, “instruments for righteousness”). Sandwiched between these two references are two quotations from 1 Timothy. Polycarp writes that “the love of money is the root of all evils” (compare 1 Tim 6:10, “the love of money is a root of all kinds of evils”), and that “as we brought nothing into the world, so we can carry nothing out” (compare 1 Tim 6:7, “we brought nothing into the world, and we cannot take anything out of the world”).53 

      According to Berding, Irenaeus of Lyons is the next in history to clearly identify Paul as the author of the PE, some fifty years later.54 Robertson, Donaldson, and Coxe date Irenaeus’ Against Heresies to between A.D. 182 and 188.55 In it, Irenaeus ascribes Pauline authorship to Titus, writing of men “Paul commands us, ‘after a first and second admonition, to avoid’” (compare Titus 3:10, “after warning him once and then twice, have nothing more to do with him”), and to 1 Timothy, writing of those Paul says use “novelties of words of false knowledge” (compare 1 Tim 6:20, “Avoid the irreverent babble and contradictions of what is falsely called ‘knowledge’”).56 

      As Rutherford observes, “in regard to the genuineness of the [PE] there is abundant external attestation. Allusions to them are found in the writings of Clement and Polycarp. In the middle of the [second century, they] were recognized as Pauline in authorship, and were freely quoted.”57 Rutherford rhetorically asks, “Can it be believed that the church of the [second century], the church of the martyrs, was in such a state of mental decrepitude as to receive [epistles] which were spurious, so far as the greater portion of their contents is concerned?”58 And this historical Christian consensus continued beyond the second century into the third and fourth. The Muratorian Canon is a fragment dating to the late second or early third century.59 It says Paul wrote the PE, which “are hallowed in the esteem of the Catholic Church, and in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline.”60 The historian Eusebius completed his history of the church in the early fourth century.61 Included among the “undisputed writings” of his time were the PE.62 In fact, Wilder notes that “The Pauline authorship of the Pastorals was not seriously questioned until the nineteenth century.”63 

    In contrast, the pseudepigraphal third epistle of Paul to the Corinthians finds its earliest attestation in the third- or fourth-century Bodmer X Papyrus, apart from which very few witnesses exist. Meanwhile, Tertullian identified it as a forgery in the late first or early second century.64 Ellis thus concludes that in light of plausible answers to challenges posed to the Pauline authorship of the PE, “the critical student [must] give primary weight to the opening ascriptions in the letters and to the external historical evidence, both of which solidly support Pauline authorship.”65 And as Guthrie writes, “when credence is given to the strength of the external evidence, the onus of proof in discussions of authenticity must rest with those who regard these Epistles as non-Pauline.”66

 

Stated Recipients 

    Ben Witherington observes the relevance of genre in discussing whether the PE are pseudepigraphal. “It is clear,” he writes, “that there were pseudepigraphal apocalyptic works both in early Judaism (e.g., portions of the Enoch corpus) and in early Christianity (e.g., the Apocalypse of Peter). . . . One cannot, however, demonstrate that about ancient ad hoc letters” like the PE, “situation-specific letters written to a particular audience.”67 One reason early Christianity did not contain pseudonymous, situation-specific letters is because, as Richard Bauckham explains, if a post-apostolic author wishes to instruct and exhort his intended readers pseudonymously and with the weight carried by genuine NT epistles, “he needs to find some way in which material that is ostensibly addressed to supposed addressees in the past can be taken by his real readers as actually or also addressed to them.”68 After all, if the allegedlyintended readers are still around, they can probably assure the truly-intended readers that the letter is not genuine. And so “any pseudepigraphal letter which has the didactic aims of NT letters must find some such way of bridging the gap between the supposed addressee(s) and the real readers.”69 While this is fairly easy to accomplish in a letter intended for a general readership, it is much more difficult in a letter modeled after the undisputed letters of Paul, containing “material of specific relevance to specific churches in specific situations.”70 As Witherington puts it, such a letter “would likely have to be situation and content specific, but for a situation and with a content that did not actually address the putative audience, but rather another and later one.”71 

     Bauckham offers a possible answer to this challenge. “A useful means of bridging the gap,” he explains, “between the supposed addressee(s) and the real readers of a pseudepigraphal letter was the letter whose contents are explicitly meant to be passed on to others by the named addressee.”72 Bauckham cautions that letters ostensibly intended to be so passed on are only possibly pseudepigraphal, since authentic letters so intended exist outside the NT. However, he argues that the presence in the PE both of this feature (e.g., 1 Tim 4:11; 2 Tim 2:2; Titus 2:15) and, in a manner reminiscent of pseudepigrapha like the Epistle of Peter to James, of warnings against future false teaching and apostasy (e.g., 1 Tim 4:1–3; 2 Tim 3:1–5), “amounts to a careful and deliberate attempt to bridge the gap between the situation at the supposed time of writing and the real contemporary situation of the author and his readers.” 73 

    On the other hand, as Bauckham himself observes, “the authentic real letter can take for granted the situation to which it is addressed,” but pseudepigrapha “must describe the situation of their supposed addressee(s) sufficiently for the real readers, who would not otherwise know it, to be able to recognize it as analogous to their own.”74 And while he suggests that in the PE “the false teachers, supposed to be already active at the supposed time of writing, are described perhaps a little more fully than would be necessary for Timothy and Titus themselves,” he admits that this is “not decisively so.”75 Indeed, it would seem that the PE could contain neither too much detail nor too little for skeptics of their Pauline authorship, for whereas Bauckham sees evidence against it in the former, Robert Wall notes that others see evidence against in the latter, the imprecise description of Paul’s opponents” argued to be evidence “that they are fictionalized and used for rhetorical ends.”76 

     As has already been argued, the descriptions of the faith’s opponents in the PE appear to be too indefinite and underdeveloped to serve as the kind of clear descriptions of second-century Gnosticism necessary to bridge the gap to readers from the author’s fictional first-century recipients. As such, the likelier explanation is that the author’s recipients were truly Timothy and Titus, dealing with an early emerging Jewish-Christian forerunner to Gnosticism they could identify from the author’s incomplete descriptions thereof, and that the author is therefore Paul. 


Undesigned Coincidences 

     Ehrman points out that “forgers typically added elements of verisimilitude to their works . . . designed to make the writing appear to have come from the pen of its alleged author.”77 Points of obvious connection between the PE on the one hand, and the undisputed epistles and other NT books on the other hand, are therefore not generally seen as strong evidence for Pauline authorship, for they may have been intentionally included to deceive readers. However, there are less obvious points of such connection that are unlikely to have been intentional, and thus serve as evidence for Pauline authorship of the PE. 

     McGrew defines an “undesigned coincidence” as “a notable connection between two or more accounts or texts that doesn’t seem to have been planned by the person or people giving the accounts. Despite their apparent independence, the items fit together like pieces of a puzzle.”7  Because such connections are apparently unintentional, and thus cannot be explained away as intentionally-added verisimilitude intended to deceive, their presence in multiple documents serves as evidence that said documents are genuine, in the same way that independentlyquestioned eyewitnesses to a crime will be deemed reliable if their accounts fit together in seemingly unintended ways. 

      The author of 2 Timothy writes that his ostensibly-intended recipient has been taught the Scriptures from his childhood (2 Tim 3:14–15) by his faithful grandmother and mother (1:5). Knight observes that the phrase “sacred writings” is how Greek-speaking Jews referred to the OT.79 Its use nowhere else in the NT, Knight suggests, points to the recipient’s Jewish background. These details fit together well with those recorded in Acts 16:1–3, where Timothy is said to be the son of a believing Jewish woman and a Greek man, which would explain why in 2 Timothy the author indicates his recipient is familiar with the Torah since he was a child, and mentions his grandmother and mother but not his father. Yet neither set of details appears to be added to connect it with the other; the author of Acts makes no mention of Timothy’s grandmother, and does not name her or Timothy’s mother, while the author of 2 Timothy makes no mention of the nationality of his recipient’s parents. This “undesigned coincidence,” McGrew concludes, “has the ring of truth. Timothy’s father was a Greek and his mother Jewish, he was raised from childhood in the knowledge of the Old Testament Scriptures, and both [the author of 2 Timothy] and the author of Acts knew about him and described him accurately.”80 

      The author of 2 Timothy also writes of his recipient’s familiarity with the persecution met by the author in Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra (3:11). As McGrew observes, “Paul had undergone so many persecutions in his missionary travels in so many different places that the specification of Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra in this verse should capture the attention. Why,” she asks, “did he mention those persecutions as the ones that would be familiar to Timothy?”81 Acts 16:1 suggests Timothy was already a well-known believer by the time Paul came to Derbe and Lystra, in one of which Timothy must have resided, and both of which were near Iconium. Leading up to this passage, Acts records the persecution of Paul during his first missionary journey in Antioch (13:44–52), then Iconium (14:5), and then Lystra (v. 19), persecutions in a region and period of time of which Timothy, a resident of Lystra or Derbe and a young disciple, would have heard word shortly before being enlisted by Paul. Moreover, the author of 2 Timothy, calling Timothy “my beloved child” (1:2), implies that he was converted by Paul, and probably therefore during Paul’s missionary travels to that region. McGrew thus concludes: 

Notice how indirect all of this is. One infers from II Timothy that Paul had some special reason to mention those persecutions to Timothy and to say that they were known to Timothy. One notes the point in Acts 13–14 where the narrative describes persecutions in those towns. One then infers from Acts 16 that Timothy was already a disciple from that region and had been converted during Paul’s previous visit to the region, described in Acts 13–14, during which the persecutions took place.82 

     It is unlikely, therefore, that either the author of Acts or that of 2 Timothy are intentionally including elements of verisimilitude they hope will convince readers of their genuineness. Such elements would surely be more obvious and less dependent upon inference. Rather, the apparently unintended coincidences between the two strongly suggest that the author and  intended recipient of 2 Timothy are truly the Paul and Timothy whose meeting and travels are recorded in Acts. 


Similarities to Undisputed Epistles 

    Of course, it goes without saying—though George Knight III says it—that “the [PE] all claim to be by Paul the apostle of Chris Jesus” (1 Tim 1:1; Tit 1:1; 2 Tim 1:1), “and this assertion is made in salutations similar to those in the other Pauline letters.”83 In all of them, as in the PE, Paul speaks of “grace” and “peace” being “from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord,” and with few exceptions likewise calls himself “an apostle of Jesus Christ.”84 Significantly, the opening greetings of 1 and 2 Corinthians contain all of these elements, but as reproduced in Ehrman’s own work, so-called 3 Corinthians contains none of these elements apart from Paul’s name, even though its occasion and motivation, in Ehrman’s estimation, are virtually identical to those of the author of the PE.85 If the similarities between the greetings of the PE and those of Paul’s undisputed letters can be chalked up to intentional verisimilitude, one wonders why that of 3 Corinthians is so dissimilar from them all. 

       Douglas, Tenney, and Silva argue that arguments against the authenticity of the PE based on style are “self-defeating, for candid examination of the actual facts clearly points to Paul as the author of the Pastorals.”86 They summarize said facts as follows: 

These three picture the same kind of person reflected in the others: one who is deeply interested in those whom he addresses, ascribing to God’s sovereign grace whatever is good in himself and/or in the addressees, and showing wonderful tact in counseling. Again, they were written by a person who is fond of litotes or understatements (2 Tim. 1:8 [“do not be ashamed”]; cf. Rom. 1:16), of enumerations (1 Tim. 3:1–12; cf. Rom. 1:29–32), of plays on words (1 Tim. 6:17; cf. Phlm. 10–11), of appositional phrases (1 Tim. 1:17; cf. Rom. 12:1), of expressions of personal unworthiness (1 Tim. 1:13, 15; cf. 1 Cor. 15:9), and of doxologies (1 Tim. 1:17; cf. Rom. 11:36).87 

     So conclusively does this evidence point to a genuinely Pauline style in the PE that “many critics now grant that Paul may be the source of some, though not all, of their contents. But this theory does not go far enough in the right direction, for those who hold it are unable to show where the genuine material begins and the spurious ends.”88 

    Given the reasonableness of rebuttals to arguments against the Pauline authorship of the PE, any lines drawn between their authentic portions and their allegedly inauthentic ones must surely be arbitrary. Put crassly, they simply reek of Pauline origin, and in the absence of compelling evidence to the contrary, they must be accepted as genuinely Pauline.


Conclusion.

    Johnson observes that prior to the nineteenth century, the PE “had been construed as Pauline and, even more important, as Scripture.”89 Since then, the tables have so turned that “the term ‘debate’ is surely too strong for the present situation, which is closer to a fixed academic consensus. Little real discussion of the issue of authenticity still occurs.”90 The evidence here examined, however, does not appear to warrant such an unquestioned consensus. On the one hand, evidence offered against the authenticity of the PE is overstated and plausibly explained by defenders of Pauline authorship. On the other hand, the external and internal evidence in favor of Pauline authorship is powerful and difficult to refute.

    Why, then, the consensus? Johnson reminds readers that “this consensus resulted as much from social dynamics as from the independent assessment of the evidence by each individual scholar. For many contemporary scholars, indeed, the inauthenticity of the PE is one of those scholarly dogmas first learned in college and in no need of further examination.”91 So unquestioned is this “reigning hypothesis” that Marshall and Towner warn it “is in danger of uncritical acceptance.”92 This state of affairs is not unlike that facing students of geology, biology, and climatology, who from very early on are indoctrinated to uncritically accept that the universe is billions of years old, that all forms of life have evolved from a common ancestor, and that humans are responsible for dangerous climate change, respectively

    Christians troubled by the prospect of pseudepigrapha in the NT, and by the possible impact of their presence on its authority and reliability, should find the conclusions of this examination very encouraging. Ehrman writes that whereas “scholars continue to debate the authorship of the Deutero-Pauline epistles”—that is, 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, and Ephesians—“when we come to the Pastoral epistles, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, there is greater scholarly unanimity.”93 Thus, if the consensus against Pauline authorship of the PE is unjustified, and if the reasons it offers are highly questionable, then one ought all the more to be skeptical of arguments against the Pauline authorship of the other disputed letters.




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